Lessons Learned from the Graphene Flagship Project

A new paper, Safety Assessment of Graphene-Based Materials, published in Small by Fadeel et al. reviews the key results of toxicological and ecotoxicological studies on graphene and 2D materials conducted over a decade by the Graphene Flagship project (2013-2023). The paper captures the discussions held at the University of Trieste in September 2023 by members of the Graphene Flagship project, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission, and European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) on the lessons learned from the Graphene Flagship project, which may be applicable to other advanced materials.  

The major conclusions in this perspective paper are:

· Graphene should not be considered as one single material since graphene-based materials (GBMs) have great variability (e.g., number of layers, lateral size, carbon-to-oxygen ratio, surface functionalization) which dictate their properties (e.g., toxicity) and require careful characterization;

· Excessive or alarming toxicity was not found for any graphene material tested, but further tests are needed to model realistic exposure scenarios across the life-cycle;

· GBMs do not induce significant toxicity to cells (in vitro) or animals (in vivo);

· Studies have demonstrated the biodegradation of GBMs and simulations have hypothesized their antibacterial and anticancer properties;

·  Benchmark materials, standard operating procedures (SOPs), and risk assessments for GBMs should be developed/updated to address their specific properties;

· Fundamental research is still needed to identify the mechanism of toxicity of 2D materials. 

To accomplish the recommended safety testing, Fadeel et al. emphasize the importance of international cooperation to learn from previous safety efforts and promote the responsible development of GBMs.